2026-05-01T03:19:40Z https://www.sapcraa.com/oai

oai:sapcraa.com:article/1511 2023-12-29 military-studies

Legal framework for the engagement of private military companies in armed conflicts: an analysis of compliance with the geneva conventions Lazarela Mićunović The proliferation of private military companies (PMCs) represents one of the most significant phenomena in the transformation of contemporary warfare, raising fundamental questions about the applicability of existing international humanitarian law. This review article analyzes the legal framework for the engagement of private military companies in armed conflicts, with particular focus on evaluating the compliance of their activities with normative standards established by the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Additional Protocols of 1977. By applying the dogmatic-legal method, comparative analysis, and case studies, the research identifies key legal gaps in regulating the status of PMC personnel, determines problems in attributing responsibility for violations of international humanitarian law, and evaluates the effectiveness of existing oversight and sanctioning mechanisms. The innovative contribution of this research consists in the development of an original analytical model called the “Legal Responsibility Matrix for PMC Activities” (LRMA), which systematizes four dimensions of responsibility: state, corporate, individual, and command, and establishes criteria for their delineation and cumulative application in various operational scenarios. Research results show that the existing international legal framework, although formally applicable, suffers from structural deficiencies that enable de facto impunity for PMC personnel, and that it is necessary to draft a special international treaty that would explicitly regulate the status, rights, obligations, and responsibility of private military companies and their employees in the context of armed conflicts. The article concludes that the application of the proposed LRMA model is necessary to overcome the current normative fragmentation and establish a coherent system of legal responsibility that would guarantee effective protection of civilian population and prisoners of war in accordance with the fundamental principles of international humanitarian law. SAPCRAA 2023-12-29 Text application/pdf https://doi.org/10.65932/military-studies-2023-1-8 https://www.sapcraa.com/article-preview/1511 Military Studies: Journal for Strategy, Technology and Defense Sciences en Private military companies Geneva Conventions international humanitarian CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 SAPCRAA https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ urn:ISSN:3126-3674 urn:ISSN:3126-3666

oai:sapcraa.com:article/1510 2023-12-29 military-studies

Exploratory application of soft set theory to the resource allocation problem in military logistics: a retrospective analysis of isaf operations in afghanistan Taha Yaseen Soft set theory represents a promising mathematical framework for dealing with parametric uncertainty, but its application in military logistics remains unexplored. This exploratory study examines the potential applicability of soft set theory to the resource allocation problem through a retrospective analysis of declassified logistics data from NATO ISAF operations in Regional Command South, Afghanistan (2010-2014). A total of 163 documented logistics requests were analyzed using a model incorporating four parameters: mission priority, time criticality, operational domain, and route security threat level. Results show a moderate correlation (r = 0.42, p = 0.003) between the proposed allocation and documented mission outcomes, with a hypothetical improvement of 19% in delivery time. However, the retrospective nature of the study precludes establishing causal relationships, and cross-validation shows a modest prediction accuracy of 61.4% (95% CI: 55.2-67.6%). Qualitative validation through interviews with four retired ISAF officers indicates significant limitations of automated systems in unpredictable operational environments. The study identifies key methodological challenges and proposes directions for future research, including prospective validation through controlled simulations and comparison with alternative multi-criteria decisionmaking methods. Results suggest that soft set theory has potential as a component of hybrid decision support systems but requires significant further development before consideration for operational implementation. SAPCRAA 2023-12-29 Text application/pdf https://doi.org/10.65932/military-studies-2023-1-7 https://www.sapcraa.com/article-preview/1510 Military Studies: Journal for Strategy, Technology and Defense Sciences en soft set theory military logistics resource allocation exploratory study ISAF operations multi-criteria decision-making CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 SAPCRAA https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ urn:ISSN:3126-3674 urn:ISSN:3126-3666

oai:sapcraa.com:article/1509 2023-12-29 military-studies

Acoustic detection of low-frequency underwater drones in shallow coastal waters: experimental validation of passive sonar arrays Fei Gao The proliferation of small unmanned underwater vehicles (UUVs) represents a growing security challenge in coastal waters worldwide. This research presents an experimental validation of a passive sonar array optimized for detecting low-frequency acoustic emissions from underwater drones in shallow coastal waters up to 50 meters deep. The experimental campaign was conducted under controlled conditions in the coastal waters of the eastern Adriatic coast during spring 2023, using a linear hydrophone array of 16 elements with an inter-element spacing of 0.75 meters. Three types of commercial underwater drones with different propulsion configurations and characteristic frequency emissions in the range of 50 Hz to 500 Hz were used as reference targets. The innovative contribution of this research is the development and validation of an Adaptive Spatio-Temporal Signal Coherence (ASTC) algorithm that integrates beamforming techniques with wavelet decomposition and machine learning for classifying acoustic signatures in multipath sound propagation conditions characteristic of shallow waters. Results demonstrate that the proposed ASTC algorithm achieves a detection probability of 94.2% at a false alarm rate of 2.1% for underwater drones at distances up to 800 meters, representing an improvement of 23.7% compared to conventional frequency analysis methods under equivalent conditions. The analysis additionally showed that the critical factor for successful detection in shallow waters is compensation of multipath effects that cause destructive interference at specific frequencies dependent on depth and seabed type. The proposed methodology enables practical implementation of early warning systems for protection of port installations, critical submarine infrastructure, and ecologically sensitive coastal zones. SAPCRAA 2023-12-29 Text application/pdf https://doi.org/10.65932/military-studies-2023-1-6 https://www.sapcraa.com/article-preview/1509 Military Studies: Journal for Strategy, Technology and Defense Sciences en passive sonar underwater drones acoustic detection shallow waters beamforming multipath propagation hydrophone array low-frequency acoustics spatio-temporal coherence coastal security CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 SAPCRAA https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ urn:ISSN:3126-3674 urn:ISSN:3126-3666

oai:sapcraa.com:article/1508 2023-12-29 military-studies

Comparative efficacy of new-generation hemostatic dressings in the treatment of arterial injuries in prehospital conditions Ana Bokuchava Uncontrolled hemorrhage represents the leading cause of preventable death in traumatic injuries, with arterial injuries requiring urgent and effective intervention in prehospital conditions. The aim of this study was to evaluate the comparative efficacy of new-generation hemostatic dressings in achieving hemostasis in arterial injuries under simulated prehospital conditions, with a particular focus on investigating a novel sequential biagent application technique. The research was conducted as a prospective, randomized, controlled study on a porcine model of femoral artery injury, including a retrospective analysis of clinical data from 847 cases of prehospital hemostatic dressing application. Four hemostatic agents were tested: kaolin-impregnated gauze (Combat Gauze), chitosan-based gauze (Celox Gauze), microfibrillar collagen (Avitene), and an experimental nano-cellulose matrix (NC-Matrix). The primary outcome was time to achieving complete hemostasis, while secondary outcomes included total blood loss, rehemorrhage rate, and histopathological changes in vascular tissue. Results showed that the novel sequential biagent application technique, which combines initial application of chitosan-based gauze with subsequent application of kaolin-impregnated gauze, resulted in statistically significantly shorter time to hemostasis (mean 2.3 ± 0.7 minutes) compared to standard monotherapy with any single agent (3.4 ± 1.1 minutes for Combat Gauze; 3.8 ± 1.3 minutes for Celox Gauze; p < 0.001). Additionally, the combined technique showed a 31.4% reduction in total blood loss compared to the best single agent. Histopathological analysis confirmed the safety profile of sequential application without significant increase in tissue necrosis or inflammatory response. These findings suggest that the sequential biagent application technique represents a significant advancement in prehospital treatment of arterial injuries and may contribute to reducing mortality caused by uncontrolled hemorrhage. Implementation of this technique requires additional training for prehospital personnel, but the potential benefits in terms of survival justify investment in educational programs. Future research should include multicenter clinical studies in human populations to confirm the applicability of these results in real clinical conditions SAPCRAA 2023-12-29 Text application/pdf https://doi.org/10.65932/military-studies-2023-1-5 https://www.sapcraa.com/article-preview/1508 Military Studies: Journal for Strategy, Technology and Defense Sciences en hemostatic dressings arterial injuries prehospital medicine hemostasis trauma kaolin chitosan sequential biagent technique Combat Gauze Celox CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 SAPCRAA https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ urn:ISSN:3126-3674 urn:ISSN:3126-3666

oai:sapcraa.com:article/1507 2023-12-29 military-studies

Hydrological modeling as a factor in operational planning of water obstacle crossings Hakan Sozer Crossing water obstacles represents one of the most complex operational tasks in military and civilian protection and rescue operations. The success of such operations directly depends on the precision of hydrological forecasts and understanding of watercourse dynamics. This paper examines the role of hydrological modeling in the operational planning process for water obstacle crossings, with particular emphasis on the integration of hydrological data into decision support systems. The research was conducted using a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods, including analysis of hydrological models, crossing scenario simulations, and evaluation of operational procedures under different hydrological conditions. As the key innovative contribution of this research, an Integrated Watercourse Trafficability Assessment Model (IWTAM model) was developed, which synthesizes hydrological parameters with technical characteristics of crossing equipment and geomorphological terrain features into a unified operational trafficability metric. The model was validated on three watercourses in southeastern Europe over a period of 24 months, achieving a prediction accuracy of 87.3% for determining optimal time windows for crossing. Research results show that the application of advanced hydrological models can reduce operational risk by 34% and increase planning efficiency by 41% compared to conventional assessment methods. The paper concludes that the integration of hydrological modeling into operational planning is essential for modern military and civilian operations, and proposes a methodological framework for implementing the IWTAM model into existing decision support systems SAPCRAA 2023-12-29 Text application/pdf https://doi.org/10.65932/military-studies-2023-1-4 https://www.sapcraa.com/article-preview/1507 Military Studies: Journal for Strategy, Technology and Defense Sciences en Hydrological modeling operational planning water obstacles river crossing IWTAM model decision support systems watercourse trafficability military hydrology civil protection watercourse geomorphology CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 SAPCRAA https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ urn:ISSN:3126-3674 urn:ISSN:3126-3666

oai:sapcraa.com:article/1506 2023-12-29 military-studies

Resilience of critical port infrastructure to hybrid threats: a comparative analysis of baltic and adriatic nato Sriraman Parthasarathy The contemporary security environment is characterized by the proliferation of hybrid threats that pose a particular challenge to the critical infrastructure of maritime states. This paper investigates the resilience of port infrastructure to hybrid threats in two geopolitically significant regions of the NATO alliance: the Baltic and the Adriatic. The research encompasses a comparative analysis of eight NATO member states – Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland in the Baltic region, and Croatia, Slovenia, Montenegro, and Albania in the Adriatic region. By applying a mixed methodology that combines qualitative analysis of security policies, quantitative assessment of infrastructural capacities, and expert interviews with relevant stakeholders, an original analytical framework called the Port Infrastructure Hybrid Threat Resilience Index (PIHTRI) was developed. The research results reveal statistically significant differences in vulnerability profiles between the two regions: Baltic ports demonstrate greater exposure to cyber and energy threats due to geographical proximity to the Russian Federation and dependence on digital infrastructure, while Adriatic ports exhibit greater vulnerability to threats related to uncontrolled migration, organized crime, and terrorism. The key innovative contribution of this research is the identification of a phenomenon the authors term “asymmetric vulnerability complementarity” – an empirically grounded finding that combining the experiences and practices of the two regions can result in a synergistic effect on the overall resilience of NATO's southern and eastern maritime domain. The results suggest the need for developing an integrated approach to port infrastructure resilience management that transcends traditional regional and national frameworks and implies a revision of existing NATO and EU mechanisms for critical infrastructure protection. SAPCRAA 2023-12-29 Text application/pdf https://doi.org/10.65932/military-studies-2023-1-3 https://www.sapcraa.com/article-preview/1506 Military Studies: Journal for Strategy, Technology and Defense Sciences en hybrid threats critical infrastructure port security resilience NATO Baltic Sea Adriatic Sea comparative analysis PIHTRI index asymmetric vulnerability complementarity CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 SAPCRAA https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ urn:ISSN:3126-3674 urn:ISSN:3126-3666

oai:sapcraa.com:article/1505 2023-12-29 military-studies

Thermal degradation of nitrocellulose propellants under storage conditions of the mediterranean climate Nikolay Koronkevich Nitrocellulose propellants represent the dominant type of propulsive explosives in modern military and civilian use, whereby their chemical stability during long-term storage remains a critical factor for safety and operational reliability. The subject of this research was the analysis of thermal degradation kinetics of single-base and double-base nitrocellulose propellants exposed to real storage conditions of the Mediterranean climate over a five-year period, with the aim of developing an improved predictive model for estimating remaining service life. The research encompassed continuous monitoring of temperature and hygrometric parameters in three representative storage facilities on the Adriatic coast, along with periodic sampling and laboratory analysis of propellant samples using differential scanning calorimetry methods, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, vacuum stability testing, and high-performance liquid chromatography. The key innovative result of the research is the development of a modified Arrhenius equation that integrates a cumulative thermal oscillation parameter, defined as a time-integral function of daily temperature amplitudes. It was established that standard isothermal models, based solely on mean annual storage temperature, underestimate the actual degradation rate of nitrocellulose propellants under Mediterranean conditions by 18-24% compared to experimentally determined values. The new model, designated as MTOD (Mediterranean Thermal Oscillation Degradation), demonstrated a coefficient of determination R² = 0.967 in predicting the residual content of the stabilizer diphenylamine, which represents a significant improvement compared to conventional isothermal models with R² = 0.891. The research results imply the need for revision of existing NATO STANAG standards for ammunition service life assessment in climatic zones with pronounced temperature oscillations SAPCRAA 2023-12-29 Text application/pdf https://doi.org/10.65932/military-studies-2023-1-2 https://www.sapcraa.com/article-preview/1505 Military Studies: Journal for Strategy, Technology and Defense Sciences en Nitrocellulose propellant thermal degradation Mediterranean climate diphenylamine vacuum stability testing Arrhenius kinetics temperature oscillations ammunition service life chemical stability STANAG standards CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 SAPCRAA https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ urn:ISSN:3126-3674 urn:ISSN:3126-3666

oai:sapcraa.com:article/1504 2023-12-29 military-studies

The impact of cognitive load on tactical decision-making of unmanned aerial vehicle operators during extended shifts Miroslav Radovanović Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) operators face unique professional challenges arising from the combination of high cognitive load, prolonged vigilance, and the need for rapid tactical decision-making in dynamic operational environments. The aim of this research was to examine how the accumulation of cognitive load during extended work shifts affects the quality, speed, and precision of tactical decisions made by UAV system operators. The study involved 78 professional unmanned aerial vehicle operators from the military and civilian sectors, with an average age of 31.4 years and a minimum of three years of operational experience. The NASA-TLX questionnaire was used for assessing subjective cognitive load, along with the Psychomotor Vigilance Test, a modified Tactical Decision-Making Test in simulated scenarios, and continuous monitoring of physiological parameters including heart rate variability and electrodermal activity. The research was conducted through simulated operational shifts lasting 4, 8 and 12 hours. Results showed a statistically significant decline in tactical decision quality after the sixth hour of continuous work, with a critical cognitive load threshold identified at 73% of maximum capacity as measured by the NASA-TLX scale. The key innovative finding of this research relates to the discovery of a nonlinear, stepwise pattern of decision-making degradation characterized by an abrupt deterioration of performance after reaching the cognitive saturation threshold, as opposed to the assumed gradual decline. This finding has significant implications for designing operator rotation schedules, implementing real-time cognitive status monitoring systems, and developing protocols for preventing critical errors in unmanned aerial vehicle operations SAPCRAA 2023-12-29 Text application/pdf https://doi.org/10.65932/military-studies-2023-1-1 https://www.sapcraa.com/article-preview/1504 Military Studies: Journal for Strategy, Technology and Defense Sciences en cognitive load unmanned aerial vehicles tactical decision-making extended shifts vigilance operator fatigue human factors UAV operations CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 SAPCRAA https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ urn:ISSN:3126-3674 urn:ISSN:3126-3666